TYPES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES USED BY TERTIARY ENGLISH MAJORS

This study investigated the types of language learning strategies used by 73 English majors from the School of Humanities in Universiti Sains Malaysia. Using questionnaires adopted from Oxford’s (1990) Strategy Inventory of Language Learning (SILL) and focus group interviews, the study also examined the English major students’ perceptions of using language learning strategies while learning English. The results revealed that the English majors were generally high users of all six types of language learning strategies. The English majors were reported to use metacognitive strategies the most. The least preferred strategies among the English majors were memory strategies. Some of the students’ perceptions were positive as they perceived that language learning strategies developed their language competency and required a conscious and deliberate effort. Conversely, some negative perceptions illustrate that students had low awareness of language learning strategies and they believed that language learning strategies did not develop language competency and the usage did not require conscious effort. Research in this field should not cease from exploration in order to contribute towards the development of self-regulated language learners who have problem solving skills and are able to take control of their learning process.

The growing acknowledgement about the dominant role of English language in the 21st century has resulted in the interest of English learners to strive for better English language proficiency.The status of English as an international lingua franca has prompted scholars and educators to find out ways or methods to develop successful language learners.Good language learners are believed to take conscious steps or actions to improve and regulate their language learning (Oxford, Griffiths, Longhini, Cohen, Macaro & Harris, 2014).In this regard, the use of language learning strategies promote language learning as a cognitive process whereby learners take full control of their learning process.Learner autonomy is perceived as part of language learning strategies as both involve learners' willingness to take full responsibility of their own learning process (Oxford, Rubin, Chamot, Schramm, Lavine, Gunning & Nel, 2014).
Due to lack of consensus between different scholars, there are still a substantial number of issues to be examined in the field of language learning strategies (Oxford, Griffiths, Longhini, Cohen, Macaro & Harris, 2014).The complexities involving strategy definition, context and research methodology, due to diverse theoretical perspectives, point to the fact that further discussion is still needed.This is because the ultimate objective of research is to foster discussion from different parts of the world in order to aid learners to study strategically and eventually promote successful language learning.Apart from that, Griffith & Oxford (2014) propose that language learning strategy is still a valid area of research because the formation of strong research connection is highly associated with the amount of research contributed to the existing body of literature.Researchers are thus encouraged to continually contribute their studies to build a stronger foundation of usable knowledge in this particular field.
With reference to the Malaysian context, there is a scarcity of research on language learning strategies employed by undergraduates from public universities, particularly among English majors.Majority of research to date in Malaysia has focused on secondary school students (Subramaniam & Palanisamy, 2014;Razak, Ismail, Aziz & Babikkoi, 2012;Razak & Babikkoi 2014, Teh, Embi, Yusoff, & Mahamod, 2009).Local researchers such as Kaur & Embi (2011a& 2011b) carried out two studies to examine Malaysian primary school students' choice of language learning strategies as well as the relationship between gender and language learning strategies.There has been insufficient research that investigates English majors from Malaysian public universities.To date, there is only one study (Naeeini, Maarof, & Selehi, 2011) which documented the language learning strategies of English majors in a public university in Malaysia (the National University of Malaysia).Most studies targeting preuniversity students do not focus on English language majors (Kiram, Sulaiman, Swanto, & Din, 2014;Shafie, 2013).
The perceptions of language learners toward language learning strategies have been underresearched in the Malaysian context.Perceptions towards learning strategies are significant because they reveal the attitudes and beliefs of language learners pertaining to language learning.This claim is further supported by Thornton (2009) who postulates that perceptions, beliefs and knowledge are often linked to each other.In other words, perception as well as belief is strongly correlated with an individual's cognitive ability to evaluate and make sense of knowledge (Thornton, 2009).The review of literature has illustrated that local researchers in Malaysia direct more attention on the relationship between language learning strategies and learners' characteristics such as gender (Razak et al., 2012, Yunus, Sulaiman & Embi, 2013, Subramaniam & Palanisamy, 2014), English language proficiency (Yunus et al., 2013), year of study (Subramaniam & Palanisamy, 2014) and motivation (Teh et al., 2009).Hence, perspectives of learners toward language learning strategies have received insufficient attention and there is a need to bridge this literature gap.
The researchers' preliminary interviews with two senior lecturers from the School of Humanities in USM on 9 th and 11 th of September 2014 respectively confirmed the importance of conducting a research in this area.The lecturers interviewed stated that students' inadequate language learning repertoire was a major concern in every academic year.They also pointed out that many students were less skilled at note taking, reading and writing and resorted to using low level learning strategies such as memorizing.
This paper thus aims to discuss the types of language learning strategies used by English majors in Universiti Sains Malaysia (the second oldest university in Malaysia).Furthermore, the current research examines the language learning strategies that are frequently used by the English majors as well as the students' perceptions of using language learning strategies.
The extant literature on this topic indicates that it has been an interesting area of research for the past three decades.Despite the wide interest in this area, the term "language learning strategy" is still a fuzzy phrase due to the lack of consensus between many scholars.Cohen (1998) aptly points out that there are too many conflicting views when it comes to defining language learning strategy.Therefore, it is rather difficult to generalise all the definitions provided by different scholars.To begin the discussion, some researchers acknowledge that language learning strategy is not directly observable as it involves mental processes related to the learning activity.As such, language learning strategies are not only confined to behavioral activity but also promote mental processes that relate to language learning (Ellis, 1996).
Meanwhile, other scholars have provided identical descriptions of language learning strategies by suggesting that it is a technique that improves the retention and retrieval of information in regard to language learning.Rubin (1987, p. 19) perceives language learning strategies as "any set of operations, plan and routines, used by learners to facilitate the obtaining, retrieval, storage and use of information".In a similar vein, Chamot and Kupper (1989, p. 13) also acknowledge that language learning strategies are "techniques which students use to comprehend, store, and remember new information and skills".
Notwithstanding such concerns, there is a fair degree of consensus between scholars with regard to the aspect of goal orientation and action basis in language learning strategies.It is surmised that the deployment of language learning strategies could facilitate language performance because the "concept of learning strategy is dependent on the assumption that learners consciously engage in activities to achieve certain goals and learning strategies which can be regarded as broadly conceived intentional directions and learning techniques" (Stern, 1992, p. 261).Oxford (1990, p. 8) provides an expanded version of the definition by proposing that language learning strategies are "specific actions taken by the learners to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations." Moreover, some scholars are in agreement in terms of the level of consciousness and intentionality in relation to language learning strategies.For instance, Dornyei (2005, p. 195) proposes that "learning strategies constitute a useful kit for active and conscious learning and these strategies pave the way toward greater proficiency, learner autonomy, and self-regulation".Sharing a similar view, Richards, Platt & Platt (1992) also suggest that learning performance could be enhanced by incorporating intentional behavior and thoughts when language learning takes place.In short, multiple scholars have described language learning strategies in a slightly different way.
The current study adopted the framework developed by Oxford (1990), which is one of the most widely accepted classification scheme that involves a variety of language learning strategies.Her taxonomy of language learning strategies is grouped into direct and indirect strategies.Direct strategies are strategies that are directly involved in language learning.All the direct strate-gies are associated with "the mental processing of the language" (Oxford, 1990, p. 37).Direct strategies include memory, cognitive and compensation strategies.Memory strategies are known for the arrangement of information for retrieving purposes.Mental linkage of information is vital as it eases the learner to retrieve information particularly in second language learning (Oxford, 2003).Cognitive strategies are crucial for manipulation of language learning (Oxford, 1990).Manipulation here refers to a learner's ability to manage and utilise the language learning behavior in a skillful manner.Meanwhile, compensation strategies are used to enhance comprehension or production when there is limited knowledge of grammar or vocabulary of the target language.
On the other hand, indirect strategies, such as metacognitive, social and affective strategies, do not directly assist learners in language learning.The ultimate purpose of metacognitive strategies is to ensure that learners are capable of coordinating their language learning progress.Therefore, it is significant for learners to identify their own language learning preferences and needs.Affective strategies help learners to regulate their emotion, motivation, attitudes and values through affective related strategies.Social strategies involve learning through communication with other people which can be seen as a form of social behavior that involves asking questions, cooperating with others and empathising with others (Oxford, 1990).

METHOD
The subjects in the current study are students in English Language Studies (ELS) degree programmes in School of the Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia.The School offers two undergraduate English programmes, which are the English Language Studies degree programme (ELS) and the English Language and Literature Studies degree programme (ELLS).The ELS cohort comprises a total of 24 students from Year 2 and Year 3. The students from Year 1 are not included because they do not take English as their major in their first year of study.Meanwhile, the ELLS cohort comprises 49 students from Year 1, Year 2 and Year 3. Therefore, the sampling population from the two degree programmes is 73 students.
The present study employed a mixed methods research design which comprises collecting both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study.This design was selected because the quantitative and qualitative data complement each other as each approach has its limitations and restrictions.The data collec-tion process adapted the sequential explanatory model suggested by Creswell (2003), which is a type of mixed methods design that places quantitative data collection before qualitative data collection.The present research used questionnaires and interviews to obtain both types of data.The SILL questionnaire developed by Oxford (1990) was adopted in the study because it is one of the most widely accepted assessment tool for language learning strategies around the world and it has been translated into at least 17 languages (Oxford, 1999).The SILL questionnaires were distributed to all 73 students from the two degree programmes.The quantitative data collected from the questionnaires were keyed into Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), version 21.0 to generate descriptive statistics.
Meanwhile, semi-structured focus group interviews were utilised to capture the perspectives of respondents toward using language learning strategies when learning English.A total number of 16 students volunteered to participate in the focus group interviews.Ethical considerations were adhered to in the process of data collection as student consent was obtained from the participants and actual student names were not used in this study.The qualitative data obtained from focus group interviews were transcribed and analysed using thematic analysis.
A coding system was used for the interview data.The recorded interviews were transcribed and coded into themes and subthemes by following the steps given in thematic analysis.The related data extracts were grouped under a broad theme.Each broad theme was then assigned with a number of subthemes.The respondents in the data extract were given a number to maintain their anonymity.For ease of reference, "I1" refers to "Interview session one" and "R1" refers to "Respondent one".The extracts from the qualitative data presented in the findings were quoted verbatim.

Findings
The following section discusses the findings obtained from the study.Table 1 below illustrates the overall usage of language learning strategies among the English majors: As shown in Table 1, the English majors used both direct strategies and indirect strategies distinctively in their language learning.However, the find-ings revealed that they used more indirect strategies than direct strategies.The mean scores of both direct and indirect strategies were 3.61 and 3.70 respectively.This indicates that the English majors were high users of direct and indirect strategies as the mean score was higher than 3.5 respectively.Moreover, the English majors were reported to use metacognitive strategies the most (the highest mean score of 4.04) followed by social and cognitive strategies.Metacognitive, social and cognitive strategies were ranked as the top three strategies used among the English majors.Apart from that, the compensation and affective strategies were ranked as the fourth and fifth least used strategies by English majors, with mean scores of 3.76 and 3.19 respectively.The least preferred strategies of the English majors were memory strategies, which obtained the lowest mean score of 3.28.
Table 2 below shows the specific learning strategies used by the English majors: Statements of language learning strategies Category and new things I learn in English.I watch English language TV shows spoken in English or go to movies spoken in English.

Cognitive Strategy
To understand unfamiliar English words, I make guesses.
Compensation strategy I pay attention when someone is speaking English.
Metacognitive strategy I encourage myself to speak English even when I am afraid of making a mistake.
Affective strategy I ask questions in English.

Social strategy
It is important to mention that every language learning strategy consists of a wide range of specific strategies.The English majors were found to be actively employing a variety of specific strategies across six types of language learning strategies.For instance, the six statements provided in Table 2 above were specific strategies that were ranked as the highest among the six types of language learning strategies respectively.In other words, the English majors frequently utilised a variety of specific strategies which were entailed in the six types of language learning strategies.
The qualitative data acquired from the respondents which indicated the use of a wide range of specific strategies supported the finding and were parallel with the quantitative data.The analysis of the interview data showed that there were several perceptions held by English majors with regards to the use of language learning strategies.In general, there were five main themes successfully identified from the focus group interviews; they are: (1) students had low awareness of LLS; (2) LLS develop language competency; (3) LLS do not always develop language competency; (4) LLS require conscious effort; and (5) LLS do not require conscious effort.
Table 3 below shows data extracts from the students for the first theme (Low Awareness of the usage of LLS)

Table 3. Theme 1 (Low Awareness of the Usage of LLS) Data Extract
Coded for I1-R3 Throughout primary school and high school the only thing that they are actually taught us is all about speaking, reading and writing.
LA1: having limited exposure to language learning strategies I2-R1: But usually the teacher just gives LA2: having no previous knowledge of

Data Extract
Coded for us the work and we just follow them.I think just follow the syllabus.Unlike the mathematic class where we are taught with more strategies but English has less I think.language learning strategies I2-R1: never heard before LA2: having no previous knowledge of language learning strategies I2-R5: Ya we have no clue at all LA2: having no previous knowledge of language learning strategies I1-R8: About the strategy, the teacher just say read this read that.I think is more of the passing strategy is not learning strategy.
LA3: having distorted view of language learning LA = Language Awareness Table 4 shows data extracts from the students for the second theme (LLS Develop Language Competency):

Table 4. Theme 2 (LLS Develop Language Competency) Data Extract
Coded for I1-R2: Language learning strategies usually bring a positive impact I think.Like for myself, I am currently learning Mandarin and I learn with my Chinese roommate and it is effective as I could make sense of the language a little bit haha.DLC1: Language learning strategies bring positive impact.I2-R8: Language learning strategy is the method to enhance learning experience because I think we as the students have to keep finding ways to improve day by day especially you know we are major in English.DLC1: Language learning strategies bring positive impact.I1-R3: Ya I agree on that.I think it is something that we could apply more and I guess it will improve our language performance.DLC2: Language learning strategies improve language proficiency.I 2-R3: Is a way to improve the knowledge and enhance learning.DLC2: Language learning strategies improve language proficiency.I2 -R6: Language learning strategy is like specific instruction?Instruction that helps DLC2: Language learning strategies improve language proficiency.

Data Extract
Coded for us improves our language.

DLC= Develop Language Competency
Table 5 presents selected data extracts from the students for the third theme (LLS Do Not Always Develop Language Competency)

Table 5. Theme 3 (LLS Do Not Always Develop Language Competency) Data Extract
Coded for I1-R2: It depends on your environment as well.Most people I know they don't speak English at all.So it is kind of hard for them to learn.They have no opportunity for them to use the language at all.DADLC1: Learner's background influences the language performance.I1-R4: I think the good and bad is really depend on the strategy like a lot of students are not native speakers, they end up translating the language from their mother tongue.I think it is a bad habit.DADLC1: Learner's background influences the language performance.I2-R4: Those students who perform better usually speak in English and not in other languages like Malay and others.So their English is more fluent due to more usage I think.
DADLC1: Learner's background influences the language performance.

DADLC = Do Not Always Develop Language Competency
Table 6 shows data extracts from the students for the fourth theme (LLS Require Conscious Effort) Table 6.Theme 4 (LLS Require Conscious Effort)

Data Extract
Coded for I1-R2: I think is a mental leaning skill learning how to use a language.RCE1: Language learning strategies are cognitive skills.I1-R3: Ya I agree on that.I think it is something that we could apply more consciously and I guess it will improve our language performance.RCE2: Language learning strategies require deliberate cognitive effort.I1-R2: … Both of my parents come from different linguistic background, so it is easy for me to pick it up.But if you apply it to a regular person, yes you have to really put in effort RCE2: Language learning strategies require deliberate cognitive effort.I1-R5: Because as mentioned just now, English is such a complicated language, if you are a person who does not really speak English, it is difficult because you are taught certain sets of thing but they are all exception of the thing you have leant.So you have to have certain kind of conscious effort to make sure that they get the language.
RCE2: Language learning strategies require deliberate cognitive effort.

RCE = Require Conscious Effort
Lastly, Table 7 shows data extracts of the students for the fifth theme (LLS Do Not Require Conscious Effort) I2-R1: Subconsciously when we watch movie.We absorb the word when we hear it once again we will be able to recall.DRCE1: Language learning is natural and base on intuition.I2-R5: Sometimes naturally.I think learning English for me is based on instinct.DRCE1: Language learning is naturally and base on intuition.I1-R4: I always think that language is a way to express yourself.There is no specific strategy.I think u can just apply anything to improve your language.DRCE2: Language learning does not require language learning strategies.I2-R5: I learn English naturally and it does not take need any specific language learning strategies or instruction.DRCE2: Language learning does not require language learning strategies.

Discussion
The findings of the present study revealed that the English majors used a wide range of direct and indirect strategies.However, the quantitative data obtained from the SILL questionnaire revealed that the respondents took a diverse approach in terms of the usage of direct and indirect strategies.The students were more inclined to use indirect strategies as the findings showed that the top two strategies used by the students were metacognitive and social strategies.This finding aligns with the results from a study conducted by Kiram et al. (2014) who investigated LLS among undergraduates from a university in Malaysia.They reported that their respondents were in favor of using indirect strategies rather than direct strategies.In addition, the results of this study support the findings by Shafie (2013) as she indicated that Malaysian undergraduates employed more indirect strategies.However, different results were reported in a study conducted by Subramanian and Palanisamy (2014), which re-vealed that Malaysian secondary school students were in fact more inclined to use direct strategies.
The descriptive analysis demonstrated that metacogntive strategies had the highest mean score followed by social and cognitive strategies.The students were identified as medium users of affective and memory strategies.The high usage of metacognitive strategies reflected that the respondents acknowledged the importance to coordinate language learning.The findings of this study were consistent with the study conducted by Kiram et al. (2014) which claimed that Malaysian undergraduates employed metacognitive and social strategies the most in their past language learning experience.Besides, Kiram et al. (2014) also suggested that affective and memory strategies were the least preferred strategies employed by Malaysian undergraduates.In contrast to this, the study by Subramanian and Palanisamy (2014) revealed that cognitive strategies were the most preferred strategies used by Malaysian secondary school students while compensation strategies had the least usage.In a similar vein, Shafie (2013) reported a slightly different result as the respondents in her study (Malaysian undergraduates) used social strategies the most but used affective strategies the least.
The memory related strategy that was frequently used by the students was "I think of relationships between what I already know and new things I learn in English."This indicates that when the students come across new information in language learning, they will actively associate the new information with the existing information so that they could remember the information with ease.Apart from that, the cognitive related strategies that were frequently used by the English majors were "I watch English language TV shows spoken in English or go to movies spoken in English".This suggests that the English majors focused on using a lot of different activities such as watching English television shows to constantly improve their language competency.These strategies are known as practicing naturalistically which tend to occur in informal settings.
In terms of compensation strategies, the statement that scored the highest means was "to understand unfamiliar English words, I make guesses".This indicates that the students could be learning more efficiently when they guess the meaning of the words or sentences with the help of the linguistic or non linguistic context.The metacognitive strategy that had the highest usage was ""I pay attention when someone is speaking English."The available evidence points out that the English majors are consciously aware and are sensitive about any verbal communication in English The respondents also reported using the following affective related strategy frequently: "I encourage myself to speak English even when I am afraid of making a mistake".They acknowledged the importance to speak English in daily life as it is the only way to improve their speaking skills in English.As for social strategies, the most frequently used strategy was "I ask questions in English" which shows that they are willing to ask for help when facing language difficulties.
Data from the focus group interviews indicated several perspectives held by the English majors.The first theme was the students' low awareness of language learning strategies.A number of the respondents had low awareness in LLS and they were not concerned about the usage of LLS.These students acknowledged that their level of awareness regarding strategy usage when learning English was rather low.The second theme suggested that some respondents strongly believed that language learning strategies impacted positively on their language learning.The students stated that they could observe improvements consistently once they applied certain strategies in language learning.This result corresponded with a study conducted by Yunus et al. (2013) who indicated that the proficient Malaysian secondary schools students were high strategy users.
Conversely, the third theme revealed that there were students who claimed that language learning strategies did not always develop language competency.These students hold a very different perspective as they tend to believe that certain internal as well as external factors play an important role in developing language competency.The fourth theme suggested that some of the respondents clearly acknowledged that language learning strategies are cognitive skills that require conscious effort.The respondents' perceptions reflected that they were in agreement to the idea that learning strategies constitute active and conscious learning.All these beliefs are consistent with findings from other researchers such as Chamot (2004) and Dornyei (2005) who also reinforce the role of conscious thoughts and action in regard to language learning strategies.Therefore, this shows that some English majors have the appropriate beliefs and perceptions when it comes to language learning.However, the fifth theme, which described that language learning strategies do not require conscious effort is in direct opposition to the previous theme.This can be explained because there were a certain number of respond-ents who approached language learning in a naturalistic manner.They underscored that language learning should be natural and is based on intuition.This belief and attitude towards language learning is not consistent among researchers such as Cohen (1998) who assert that the storage, retention and application during language learning could be enhanced only when the learner consciously selects the appropriate learning strategy.

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
The current study reached several conclusions.The first is that the English majors from USM are generally high users of language learning strategies.They use a wide range of language learning strategies and each strategy is used at a different frequency.However, the interview sessions revealed that a number of students are still unaware of the existence of language learning strategies.Moreover, some of the students are still uncertain and skeptical about the positive impact of strategy use.As a result, they appeared reluctant to incorporate learning strategy in their language learning.Hence, there is a need to reinforce language learning strategies in the language education system in Malaysia.The Malaysian education system does not provide adequate exposure about strategy training at school.There is a need to raise awareness about strategy use among school teachers in an effort to enhance students' language learning experiences.
This study recommends that language learning strategies be incorporated into English language textbooks as they are one of the most effective ways to simultaneously develop strategy usage while learning the language.The integration of language learning strategies into the curriculum in schools might help students to improve their strategy use across tasks and skills which provides a great opportunity for learners to be exposed to a rich repertoire of strategies.This in turn may eventually help them to become autonomous and selfdirected learners in future.As suggested by Dornyei (2005, p. 14) "learning strategies constitute a useful kit for active and conscious learning and these strategies pave the way toward greater proficiency, learner autonomy, and selfregulation".
Another crucial recommendation is the role of the instructor as a facilitator in language learning.English language instructors in schools and universities should acknowledge the significant impact of language learning strategies in language learning.Instructors themselves have to be equipped with adequate tools of language learning so that they are able to address their students' language learning needs.Language learning strategies are functional according to the students' needs and specific instructions have to be given to students to enhance their learning performance.The instructor's goal is to develop a student that is able to evaluate and identify the appropriate strategy that could solve the language learning task.Furthermore, the instructor has to make sure that students are able to transfer the strategies that they have mastered to any new learning situation.
The findings of this study show that affective and memory strategies have the least usage among USM English majors.It is plausible to claim that the relatively low usage of these two strategies is due to students' inadequate knowledge about LLS.A number of research studies have reported that successful learners tend to use a high overall usage of the six types of strategies to facilitate language performance (Shi, 2012;Salahshour, Sharifi & Salahshour, 2012).Therefore, it is imperative for university instructors to encourage their students to use language learning strategies by providing them with adequate information about each strategy.Moreover, tertiary language instructors could assess the strategy usage of their students on a regular basis in order to gain a better understanding of students' language learning preferences so that they could individualise the learning content.
The field of language learning strategies will continue to offer procedural and declarative knowledge for students to take control of their language learning (Oxford, Rubin, Chamot, Schramm, Lavine, Gunning, & Nel, 2014).The knowledge that is contributed from this field could develop self regulated language learners who are equipped with problem solving skills and developed into active agents that take control of their learning process.