SCAFFOLDING LANGUAGE LEARNING BEYOND THE EFL CLASSROOM: THE EXPERIENCES OF PRIMARY-AGED SAUDI STUDENTS
Downloads
: This study explores the out-of-school English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning experiences of eight fourth-grade female students in Saudi Arabia. Using arts-based language maps and semi-structured interviews, we explored how the participants engaged with English learning beyond formal schooling. Drawing on the concepts of scaffolding and situated learning, a thematic analysis of the data revealed that the children’s English language learning was scaffolded both intentionally and incidentally through human (e.g., mothers, siblings, friends, domestic workers) and technological (e.g., notebooks, digital tools, online tutors) resources. While engaging with these resources, the children demonstrated autonomy by initiating learning tasks and seeking guidance from more knowledgeable others. The study further revealed that out-of-school language learning occurred within hybrid spaces, where home literacy practices, digital environments, and formal online learning blended to support language development. It was also found that scaffolding and situated learning are co-constructed through children’s interactions with their environments; however, access to these opportunities varied depending on the availability of resources. This research empirically addresses a gap in current understanding of how children engage in informal language learning experiences.
Downloads
Al-Seghayer, K. (2023). The newfound status of English in 21st-century Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Linguistics, 15(4), 82-103. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v15i4.21262
Alghamdi, F. A. M. (2024). Exploring the effectiveness of technology-enhanced self-access language learning (SALL) amongst primary level EFL learners in Saudi Arabia [Doctoral thesis, University of Southampton]. http://eprints.soton.ac.uk/id/eprint/494903
Almesaar, O. (2024). English language in Saudi Arabia: vision 2030 in the historical prism of a clash between cultures. Frontiers in Communication, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2024.1205167
Alroqi, H. S. (2019). The relationship between screen media exposure and early language development [Doctoral thesis, The University of Manchester]. https://research.manchester.ac.uk/files/162160209/FULL_TEXT.PDF
Alshammary, M. S. (2020). The impact of using Cambly on EFL university students' speaking proficiency. English Language Teaching, 13(8), 12-26. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v13n8p12
Amina, F., Barnes, M. M., & Saito, E. (2024). Belonging in Australian primary schools: how students from refugee backgrounds gain membership. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural development, 45(6), 1864-1887. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2022.2026367
Annamalai, N., Eltahir, M. E., Al Salhi, N. R., Zakarneh, B., & Zyoud, S. H. (2022). Investigation of Malaysian ESL students’ learning experience of the smartphone applications for English language learning. International Journal of English Language and Literature Studies, 11(4), 202-211. https://doi.org/10.55493/5019.v11i4.4678
Bai, B., & Guo, W. (2021). Motivation and self-regulated strategy use: Relationships to primary school students’ English writing in Hong Kong. Language Teaching Research, 25(3), 378-399. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168819859921
Behr, D., & Shishido, K. (2016). The translation of measurement instruments for cross-cultural surveys. In C. Wolf, D. Joye, T. W. Smith, & Y.-c. Fu (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of survey methodology. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473957893
Belland, B. R. (2017). Instructional Scaffolding: Foundations and Evolving Definition. In B. R. Belland (Ed.), Instructional scaffolding in STEM education: Strategies and efficacy evidence (pp. 17-53). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02565-0_2
Cadima, J., Barros, S., Ferreira, T., Serra-Lemos, M., Leal, T., & Verschueren, K. (2019). Bidirectional associations between vocabulary and self-regulation in preschool and their interplay with teacher–child closeness and autonomy support. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 46, 75-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.04.004
Cancino Avila, M. O., & Castillo Fonseca, G. I. (2021). Gamification: How does it impact L2 vocabulary learning and engagement? Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 18(2), 156-170. https://doi.org/10.56040/ghcc1824
D’warte, J. (2021). Facilitating agency and engagement: Visual methodologies and pedagogical interventions for working with culturally and linguistically diverse young people. Language Teaching Research, 25(1), 12-38. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820938826
D’warte J., S. M. (2014). Language mapping: Researching marginalised students’ everyday language and literacy practices. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Dafei, D. (2007). An exploration of the relationship between learner autonomy and English proficiency. Asian EFL Journal, 24(4), 24-34. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242273007_An_Exploration_of_the_Relationship_Between_Learner_Autonomy_and_English_Proficiency
Dong, Y., Wu, S. X.-Y., Dong, W.-Y., & Tang, Y. (2020). The effects of home literacy environment on children’s reading comprehension development: A meta-analysis. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 20(2), 63-82. https://doi.org/10.12738/jestp.2020.2.005
Dulay, K. M., Tong, X., & McBride, C. (2017). The role of foreign domestic helpers in Hong Kong Chinese children's English and Chinese Skills: A longitudinal study. Language Learning, 67(2), 321-347. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12222
Elyas, T., & Picard, M. (2018). A brief history of English and English teaching in Saudi Arabia. In C. Moskovsky & M. Picard (Eds.), English as a foreign language in Saudi Arabia: New insights into teaching and learning English (pp. 70-84). Routledge.
Estrada Chichón, J. L. (2022). Parental involvement in EFL Learning with preprimary children: shaping the features of video tutorials. In A. Courtney-Dattola (Ed.), Handbook of research on adapting remote learning practices for early childhood and elementary school classrooms (pp. 369-391). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-8405-7.ch022
García, O., & Kleyn, T. (2016). Translanguaging with multilingual students: learning from classroom moments. Routledge.
Gauntlett, D., & Holzwarth, P. (2006). Creative and visual methods for exploring identities. Visual Studies, 21(1), 82-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/14725860600613261
Gee, J. P. (2012). Situated language and learning: A critique of traditional schooling. Taylor and Francis.
Gregory, E., Volk, D., & Long, S. (2004). Many pathways to literacy: young children learning with siblings, grandparents, peers, and communities. RoutledgeFalmer.
Human Capability Development Program of Saudi Arabia 2021-2025. (2021). https://www.vision2030.gov.sa/en/explore/programs/human-capability-development-program
Kalaycı, G., & Öz, H. (2018). Parental involvement in English language education: Understanding parents' perceptions. International Online Journal of Education and Teaching, 5(4), 832-847. https://iojet.org/index.php/IOJET/article/view/447
Knowles, J. G., & Cole, A. L. (2007). Handbook of the arts in qualitative research: Perspectives, methodologies, examples, and issues. SAGE Publications. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/latrobe/detail.action?docID=1995726
Lau, C., & Richards, B. (2021). Home literacy environment and children’s English language and literacy skills in Hong Kong. Frontiers in Psychology, 11 (2020). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.569581
Lau, E. Y. H., & Lee, K. (2021). Parents’ views on young children’s distance learning and screen time during COVID-19 class suspension in Hong Kong. Early Education and Development, 32(6), 863-880. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2020.1843925
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511815355
Leavy, P. (2020). The Oxford handbook of qualitative research. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190847388.001.0001
Li, G. (2007). Home environment and second-language acquisition: The importance of family capital. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 28(3), 285-299. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425690701252028
Little, D. (2022). Language learner autonomy: Rethinking language teaching. Language Teaching, 55(1), 64-73. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444820000488
Liu, H. j. (2015). Learner autonomy: The role of motivation in foreign language learning. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 6(6), 1165-1174. https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0606.02
Liu, T. (2023). The impact of the combination of online English learning app Cambly and TESOL on English learners. In Proceedings of the 2023 7th International Seminar on Education, Management and Social Sciences (ISEMSS 2023) (pp. 377-385). https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-38476-126-5_45
McNiff, S. (2018). “Philosophical and practical foundations of artistic inquiry.” In P. Leavy (Ed.), Handbook of arts-based research (pp. 22–36). Guilford Press.
Minalla, A. A. (2022). Empowering EFL parents for interlocutor’s role with their children through contextualizing speaking activities at home by using supplementary videos (Video material & explainer video). Creative Education, 13(7), 2252-2263. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2022.137142
Namaziandost, E., Çakmak, F., Heydarnejad, T., & Rezai, A. (2024). The predictive effects of learner autonomy and academic engagement on willingness to communicate, foreign language learning self-esteem, and L2 grit in an EFL context. Acta Psychologica, 250, 104528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104528
Nowell, L. S., Norris, J. M., White, D. E., & Moules, N. J. (2017). Thematic analysis: Striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406917733847
Olwi, A. (2024). English proficiency among public and private high school graduates in the Arab world. al-Azhar Journal of Education, 204(2), 749-766. https://journals.ekb.eg/article_401033.html
Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development (1st ed.). Oxford University Press.
Saldaña, J. (2021). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (4th ed.). SAGE.
Salfin, S., Kurniadi, P., & Erwin, E. (2024). Language development in the digital age: A literature review on the influence of technology on human communication. Sciences du Nord Humanities and Social Sciences, 1(01), 01-07. https://doi.org/10.58812/0yhk5d80
Salminen, J., Muhonen, H., Cadima, J., Pagani, V., & Lerkkanen, M.-K. (2021). Scaffolding patterns of dialogic exchange in toddler classrooms. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction, 28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lcsi.2020.100489
Sayer, P., & Ban, R. (2014). Young EFL students’ engagements with English outside the classroom. ELT Journal, 68(3), 321-329. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccu013
Schmidt, R. W. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 129-158. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/11.2.129
Sockett, G. (2014). The online informal learning of English (1st ed.). Palgrave Macmillan.
Sorenson Duncan, T., & Paradis, J. (2020). Home language environment and children's second language acquisition: The special status of input from older siblings. Journal of Child Language, 47(5), 982-1005. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0305000919000977
Soyoof, A., & Reynolds, B. L. (2024). The role of a mother and siblings in enhancing two young Iranian EFL students’ willingness to communicate in a second language through serious game play. In J. S. Lee, D. Zou, & M. M. Gu (Eds.), Technology and English language teaching in a changing world: A practical guide for teachers and teacher educators (pp. 61-71). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-51540-8_5
Sundqvist, P. (2009). Extramural English matters: Out-of-school English and its impact on Swedish ninth graders' oral proficiency and vocabulary [Doctoral dissertation, Karlstad University]. https://scispace.com/pdf/extramural-english-matters-out-of-school-english-and-its-4crfp5zq00.pdf
Vadivel, B., Alam, S., Nikpoo, I., & Ajanil, B. (2023). The impact of low socioeconomic background on a child’s educational achievements. Education research international, 2023, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/6565088
Vygotsky, L. S., Cole, M., John-Steiner, V., Scribner, S., & Souberman, E. (1978). Mind in society: Development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/latrobe/detail.action?docID=3301299
Wolfaardt, J. F. (2022). Bilingual Hong Kong primary school children’s vocabulary: The impact of Filipina domestic workers. International Journal of Bilingualism, 26(6), 767-783. https://doi.org/10.1177/13670069211062032
Wolfaardt, J. F., & Leung, A. H.-C. (2025). The impact of Filipina domestic workers on Hong Kong primary school children’s L2 English spoken CAF and reading accuracy and fluency. Applied Linguistics, 46(1), 146-161. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amad072
Yeh, H.-C., & Lai, W.-Y. (2019). Speaking progress and meaning negotiation processes in synchronous online tutoring. System, 81, 179-191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.01.001
Zhang, X., Carrie, L., & and Su, Y. (2023). Home environment and development of English as a second/foreign language for young children in Asian contexts: A systematic review and meta-analysis*. Early Education and Development, 34(1), 274-305. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2021.1981065
Copyright (c) 2026 Enas Mohammed Alnafia , Urmee Chakma, Lilly Yazdanpanah, Melissa Barnes
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
